Let's cut to the Chase...
By Danford C. Jennings
In a previous primer, "True Grit", I mentioned an e-mail exchange with a colleague in regard to the basic fundamentals of working with wood which prompted its' composition. I was greatly surprised by the number of folks who viewed that discussion, I hope this one is received equally as well.
As I've often said, I carry a strong belief that the acquisition and honing of ones hand skills not only carries over into machine operations but also, the sense of accomplishment is significantly enhanced. In discussions relating to hand planes I frequently mention that they were the second tools I was taught to use. The first, never having been mentioned, was the "handsaw".
Nomenclature
Generally speaking, a "hand saw" is a pretty generic term, there are many specific types. What is commonly referred to as a "hand saw" is actually a panel saw used for general use. They do come in various lengths with either a skew back or straight back, made of spring steel, with a full handle. The tip of the blade is the toe; the rear end referred to as the heel, and the top edge as its back. The teeth are ground and set for either cross cuts or rip cuts and they will vary in number of teeth per inch (tpi). The more teeth per inch the finer the cut.
Back saws would include any hand saw that has a brass or metal reinforcement strip along its' back to stiffen the blade for precision. The dovetail, tenon, carcass, mitre, gent, and veneer are all backsaws. Their specific designations are mostly a function of their actual size, tooth set, and number of teeth per inch. With the exception of the veneer saw, all back saws will have a squared toe and heel with a straight cutting edge, a veneer saw’s cutting edge is curved, rockered, and the teeth do not have a set. Traditionally, a dovetail saw has a hardwood half handle and a rip grind (at least 20 tpi), some have a turned handle, since executing a dovetail joint is a ripping operation.
In reality, a cross cut "dovetail saw" is a tenon saw. The tenon saw is usually larger than the dovetail, coming in both cross and rip cut grinds. This is because execution of a tenon involves both operations, typically they will have 15-20 tpi. A carcass saw is very similar to the tenon, it’s distinction being that the teeth are coarser (less tpi) and used in carcass work where the joinery is not so fine.
The mitre saw is the gran’ daddy of the backsaws and I know of no manufacture that still makes a true mitre back saw. These guys have a blade length in the neighborhood of 20 - 24 inches, a blade height of up to 10". They were used in a mitre box for cutting trim such as crown mouldings and casings and will typically have 15-20 tpi. Nobex does manufacture two sizes of mitre saws, which resemble a hacksaw on guides. I will note that, IMHO, the Nobex mitre saw is superior to any mitre saw, hand or corded, on the market today.
The gent and the veneer saws are the munchkins of the backsaw family. The gent is smaller than the dove, has a turned handle, usually 20 tpi with no set. They are used for very fine dovetail work and other fine joinery work. The veneer, as previously mentioned, has a rockered cutting edge, over 20 tpi (mine’s 28 I recall), no set, a turned handle, and are about 6" in length. Its use is for cutting veneer and the rockered edge facilitates precision and cutting radii.
We now come to the "jig saws" which are the coping and fret saws. A coping saw is used in finish carpentry mostly on profiled trim work, jointing the pieces on inside corners. The coping saw has an upside down "U" shaped frame that holds a very narrow and thin 6" long blade (usually around 12 tpi) under tension and has a turned handle. The fret saw is almost identical to the coping saw, except that the frame is typically made of heavier steel and the frame is much taller than its’ cousin for reaching deeper into the boards' face. As its name implies, it is used for fretwork mostly in the furniture trade. Fretwork consists mostly of applied mouldings where elaborate inside and outside cuts are made. Now days most folks refer to this as "scroll work."
Lastly, but certainly not least, where wood workers are concerned, is the bow saw. The bow saw is quite possibly the oldest type of hand saw and is still the preferred handsaw by the European artisans of today. This too has a frame only it is made of a hardwood such as Ash or Red Beech; in the shape of an "H", the thin blade is tensioned between the two bottom legs. There is not a standard size, some have a turned handle, and some have none. Tension is applied by means of twisting a stranded cord of leather or waxed cotton, with a wooden "tongue" between them resting against the cross piece. The blades come in a wide variety of widths and tpi and these saws are extremely accurate and, IMO, easier to use and control than a panel saw. Like any thing, though, they do take some practice getting used to.
Tooth Set
Tooth set actually refers to the actual lateral set of the teeth; grind refers to the shape. Both cross cut and ripsaws will have a set, the rip saw has less set than a cross cut and the set assists in chip ejection. The actual grind determines the intended operation. A rip saw is designed to cut with the grain, the faces of the teeth are at 8º and the back at 52º, sharpened flat across the face, they resemble a chisel and actually work as such. Each tooth working independent of one another cutting the wood, the following teeth plowing the cut clean. The cross cut saw will have teeth that have a 15º face and 45º back, with the face and back edges beveled at around 24º resembling a series of knife points. The set is greater than that of a rip and the cutting action of a crosscut is more of a slicing of the fibers by the point, then pared by the rest of the edge. Essentially, the points score the fibers first on a cross cut saw for efficiency. The kerf of a ripsaw will be square with a flat bottom; the kerf of a crosscut will be square with a "pyramid" on the bottom. As a little exercise on the importance and ease of using the right tool for the job take a paring chisel and slice off a shaving going with the grain on a piece of scrap along its face (a rip cut). Now repeat the process going across the grain (cross cut with a rip blade). Notice the effect on the fibers, big difference, huh? You can also reverse the process to simulate a cross cut, by scoring two lines first then paring out the middle with the chisel to get a clear understanding on how the teeth of a saw blade work. Or you could simply try to rip a board with a cross cut panel saw and/or cross cut a board with a rip; the "dynamics" and results will quickly become apparent.
Technique
Yup, there actually is a right way and a wrong way to cut a board using a hand saw. For this portion I’ll stick mainly to the panel saw, though some techniques can be applied to any type of hand saw. Firstly, the work piece should be secured in some manner at a height around knee high. Personally, I prefer to use a pair of saw horses where I can hold down the board with my left knee (I’m right handed).
For a rip or cross cut on a board when "rough" dimensioning I use an awl or marking gauge to scribe my marks and I carry them down the edges. The reason I do this is because a well tuned handsaw will actually track in the scribed mark. The important thing here is to have a comfortable, well balanced stance that won’t restrict the arm and shoulder movement while sawing. For a crosscut, the saw teeth should be at a 45º angle to the surface being cut, for a rip it should be at 60º. The most common mistake made when using the panel saw is sawing at the improper angle, the blade bounces, catches, skips, and just generally makes it a less than smooth operation. I hold the saw firmly but comfortably with my index finger pointed along the side for more accuracy.
To start a cut, start at the heel of the saw drawing it back towards you three or four times using your thumbnail or knuckle of your non sawing hand as a guide with moderate downward pressure so the saw won’t bounce. Use only the first six inches of the heel to establish the kerf until you are about a quarter of an inch into the wood, more if you are brand new, before you start full strokes. You’ll find that as your skills improve, just a few pulls on the saw is all you’ll need before you commence the full chorus.
The saw stroke begins with pull or up stroke, just the weight of the saw, the down, or what I call the power stroke, is done mostly with the upper arm and shoulder. You want to keep the wrist firm, set up a good rhythm, and think of your whole arm as a piston. Doing so will apply a natural down ward pressure on the power stroke making for quick and efficient sawing. The important thing is to let the saw do the cutting; you are just providing the "horses".
A beginner needs to keep an eye on both the back of the saw (for plumb) and ahead of the mark as well, so take your time. Once proficiency is gained you will have gained the muscle memory for plumb and all that is needed is to pay attention to the mark. Once you’re into the stock use full strokes, this would be at least 3/4 the length of the blade, finishing with the "power" in the final quarter (towards the heel). What will cause the blade to wander is applying too much power when it’s near the toe. If you do start to drift take immediate action by steering the saw back to the mark using the toe, get back on line, and then back into your rhythm.
As the cut nears completion, it’s important that you support the cutoff piece so the board doesn’t splinter when it drops off. On a long rip cut, the saw will sometimes bind as internal tension is released, so it’s always a good idea to have a #8d finish or wedge in your apron to act as a "splitter". The cut is always made going with the grain. 'Course you can cut against it, but it’s more difficult and the results aren’t as good.
Tips & Tricks o’ the Trade
The first tip is to make sure you are working with well tuned saws, not doing so will only cause disappointment and frustration. Mine see almost daily use, so not only are they regularly sharpened but waxed as well, they never come in contact with another material besides wood and paste wax, and are put back where no tension what so ever is placed on the blade.
To keep this from getting away in length, here’s a link for more information on saw maintenance click here.
Another tip is to practice, if you have trouble ensuring the blade is plumb, use a tall block as a guide. As I said, the muscle memory will come with practice. "Practice" can consist of just going out and making sawdust with scrap or it can be grabbing a saw off the wall to make a single cut of a piece in progress, instead of firing up "the monster". Another suggestion would be to find a small project such as a night stand or small book case and resolve to do it entirely by hand, no corded tools allowed. The confidence and pride that results will amaze you.
I don’t know of many "tricks" to rectify a board that’s been cut too short, but here’s one if it’s been cut a tad too long. To cut a thin slice, take a piece of scrap, scribe a line on the scrap piece, then place the miss-cut piece on top of it and back from the side edge of the scrap a few inches, aligning the work piece's edge parallel to the line with the "waste" over the line. Begin your cut on the scrap’s scribe mark and continue cutting until you have "sliced" off the waste, just make sure the work piece is secured to the scrap.
For a bevel cut, scribe your marks on the face and the angle on the edge. Take a 2 x 4 and clamp it the necessary distance away from the face mark and it can now be used as a guide when the saw blade touches the top corner. In some parts of the country, most notably the hills of Appalachia and the Ozarks, the panel saw is used as a musical instrument by flexing the blade in "S" curves. Admittedly this is one art form I’ve yet to master and would not recommend using a vintage Disston or high quality saw to learn this art on. For now, I’m content with its natural music imparted when sawing a board.
Final Thoughts
Aside from sanding, I believe that using a handsaw is the most basic and fundamental operation in working with wood. The ability to cut a straight line is so basic, in fact, that in the trades ones' inability to cut one is the cause of tremendous derision and ridicule. It is certainly one of the first things taught. That being said, this particular hand skill is the foundation upon which all other hand skills are built on. It promotes the hand/eye coordination necessary for those skills, the rapid acquisition of muscle memories for other hand skills, it carries over to machinery, and certainly promotes the understanding of the basic dynamics that are involved in cutting a piece of wood.
Then of course, there are the more intrinsic values. The sense of pride, the unique "song" that the saws hums back to you, and actually feeling the inner character of the piece being worked on. Yes, each board has it’s own character and it are these very subtle nuances of the medium, accumulated over time, the sum of which helps us better understand the working properties of wood fully. This total understanding can only be acquired through handwork. It can’t be learned by reading a book, or lifted from a web page. Your senses become honed to the point that when you can pick up a raw board, you know it’s the right one. You become totally attuned to what’s happening to that board as it’s run over the jointer or through the table saw just by a barely perceptible change in pitch of sound.
Handwork forces you to be patient, to be aware, to plan ahead. If you are lucky, you begin to appreciate the efforts of those who came before us and your own efforts more as well. Then you will have the ability to pass those skills on to a son, daughter, grandson, or even the little shaver down the street who drops into your shop out of curiosity. In my view, the true measure of a craftsman is not so much as what he knows, but what he passes on to others.
Regardless of your methods and approach used in working with wood, the lack of honed hand skills may or may not make you any less of a wood worker. But by not having them, I can say with certainty, that you will miss a very large part of the joy and challenge of your craft. So for those who don't yet have a hand saw or three in your arsenal, go out to a garage sale or flea market and resurrect an old Disston D-8 and put that ol' girl to use. For those that do have some hanging on a wall somewhere, knock off the rust by sawing a board, you'll end up bringing forth a few cherished recollections and perhaps even a sense of renewal.
Dano
"Form and function are one" - Frank Lloyd Wright